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11.s OFFICE OF STRi\TEGIC SERVICES 


Research and Analysis Branch 







R & A No. 1595 


HR)IAN MINORITIES IN SOUTH AND EAST ASIA: 

THE BACKGROmm OF TliE INDIAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT 
OUTSIDE INDIA 


A survey of Indian populations in South 
and East Asia as a basis for estimating the probable 
strength of the Japanese-sponsored Indian Independ¬ 
ence movement. 


t>Ecc/r§^iE:o 

lirBRARY OB congress 

F.A.C. File No. 


8 September 1944 


'v- . 
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r#.Y 1 6 1962 . , 


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INDIAN MINORITIES IN SOUTH AND EAST ASIA: 

THE BACKGROUI'ID OF TiiE INDIAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT 

Table of Contents 

' # 

Page 

SmfllARY iii-vii 

INTRODUCTION 1 

I. INDIANS IN BURI.IA 2-11 

A. Population Statistics 2 

1. Geogrpahic Distribution 2 

2. Racial Affiliations 2 

3. Birthplace 3 

4. Sex and Age Grouping 4 

5. Religious Groups 5 

6. Occupations 6 

7. Summary ‘ 7 

B. Relations between Burmans and Indians 8 

C. Indian Organizations 10 

II. INDIANS IN THAILAND • 11-20 

A. Population Statistics 11 

B. Economic Status 14 

C. Indian Organizations 14 

D. Early History of the Indian Independence League in 

Thailand and its Founders 15 

III, INDIANS IN MALAYA 20-30 

A. Population Statistics ‘ 20 

B. Principal Occupations 24 

C. Indian Associations 26 

D. Indians under British Administration in Malaya 28 

IV. INDIANS IN INDOCHINA 30-31 

V. INDIANS IN NETHERL^iNDS EAST INDIES 31-32 

VI. INDIANS IN CHINA 32-39 

A, Population Statistics 32 

B, Indians in China and Indian Nationalism 33 

C, Indian Organizations 35 

VII. INDIAl^S IN JAPAN 39-49 

A. Indian Population of Japan 39 

B. Indian Revolutionaries of Japan 39 

1. Maulvi Mohammed Barkatulla 40 

2, Hariharnath Thulal Atal 41 







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- ii - 


Table of Contents (Cont’d.) 

Page 

VII. INDIANS IN JAP/J^ (Continued) 

3, Raja Mahendra Pratap 42 

4, Rash Behari Bose 45 

5, Anand Mohan Sahay 46 

C. Indian Organizations in Japan 47 

VIII. INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS MD INDIANS OVERSEAS 50-51 

APPENDICES 52-60 

I. Indians in Burma 52 

II. Indians in Thailand 54 

III. Some Prominent Indians in Malaya 57 










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- iii - 
. SI3MMARY 

The Indian Independence Leagues in South East Asia, as far as 
manpower is concerned, have in several areas a large population upon 
v>rhich to draw for membership. Indians are most numerous in Burma and 
Malaya, Vvhere they form a considerable proportion of the laboring class. 
There is also a fairly large group in the N.E.I, In Thailand and Indo¬ 
china the Indians are a rather small, compact merchant community with 
the laboring class a relatively insignificant minority in the Indian 
group. The Indians in China are settled chiefly in Hongkong and 
Shanghai, Their number is small and for the most part they are former 
members of the police force or army who remained in China when their 
term of service was completed. The Indian population of Japan consisted 
of a small group of merchants settled in the principal cities. There 
were in addition a number of students and a few exiled Indian patriots. 
In all of these areas Indian males greatly outnumber the females, 
and a large proportion of them are between the ages of 15 and 35, Al¬ 
though the population of Indians born in the country of enumeration is 
increasing, Indians in all countries of South East Asia are largely 
immigrants who return after a period to the country of their birth. In - 
1931 for example, four-fifths of the Indian population of Malaya had 
been born outside the country; the figure for Burma in the same year 
was 62 percent, A certain index to the immigrant nature of the 
population, and its temporary character, is the sex ratio. 









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There is no indication that the majority of these Indians took 
any interest in Indian political problems. In Burma, before its 
separation from India, there was a provincial committee of the Indian 
National Congress, It is probable that the members vrere dravai from 
tlie professional, educated classes among the Indians of Rangoon, and 
that the laborers who formed the bulk of the population had no part 
in the organization# On the whole, Indian organizations in Burma 
and Malaya had as their objective the economic and social advance¬ 
ment of Indians in these countries. In Thailand and Indochina, 

Indian societies v;ere probably business associations or social clubs# 
Certainly in Thailand and perhaps in Indochina as well there v^ere a 
few Indians who were interested in the Indian struggle for freedom 
but they seem to have made little headway among their fellow country¬ 
men# 

The situation in China seems to have been somewhat different. 

The Indians formed a small, compact group largely belonging to the 
Sikh community, A revolutionary movement, dating from the years of 
the last v/ar, fed by resentment against the British and influenced by 
Chinese nationalist activities, flourished in Shanghai. The roots of 
this movement lay not in prescmt-day Indian nationalism Vvlth its creed 
of non-violence and civil-disobedience, but in the older terrorism 
v;hich long ago ceased to play a part in Indian politics. In recent 
years, however, the activities of the Indians in Shanghai have been 








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increasingly inspired by the Indian National Congress. 

Japan has a smaller Indian population than any other country in East 
Asia. Nevertheless the presence in Japan of a small group of Indian 
revolutionaries and the fact that they have received encouragement and 
support from the Japanese, has made Japan the center of Indian nation¬ 
alist activities in eastern Asia. Several associations were devoted to 
the cause of Indian independence and the degree of organization for this 
purpose surpassed anything achieved or attempted in other countries of 
eastern Asia. 

It seems clear that the Indian Independence Leagues have not been 
built up on the basis of pre-existing nationalist organizations in South 
East Asia. Nor is it likely that there was any v/idespread demand on the 
part of Indians in this area that the war be made the occasion of obtain¬ 
ing India’s freedom, although a few Indians in Japan, such as Rash Behari 
Bose, probably regard the present war as the opportunity missed in 1914-18. 

The Independence Leagues are, then, the creation of the Japanese. 

There is very little reliable information regarding the degree to which 
the Japanese have been successful in enlisting the support of Indians in 
this movement. There were doubtless in each country a few Indians ready 
to respond to appeals to their patriotism. It is likely that Japanese 
anti-British propaganda would prove effective especially in Burma and 
Malaya; and *’Asia for the Asiatics" is an old and attractive slogan through¬ 
out the area, Pro-Japanese sentiments dating from the Russo-Japanese war 







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- Vi - 


provided a basis upon which to erect Japanese-sponsored organizations 
directed toward the achievement, with Japanese aid, of national status 
for India, There is no reason to believe that politically intelligent 
Indians in the area would have had many qualms about accepting such aid, 
and if Japan’s ultimate intentions were ever called into question, it is 
probable that few Indians would have been found to prefer British to 
Japanese domination. Furthermore, in the early years of the war Japan 
appeared to have established herself firmly in South Eastern Asia, 
Britain’s defeat in India must have seemed to those Indians who were 
informed as to the course of events, a natter of months merely, Expedi- 
cncy demanded that they cooperate with the Jap.anese, It is probable also 
that the Japanese resorted to coercion when persuasion failed. It has 
been reported, for instance, that the Indian merchants in Bangkok viere 
forced, by threat of boycott, to provide funds for the League, and there 
have been statements to the effect that prisoners of war volunteered for 
service in the Independence Army to escape torture at the hands of their 
captors, 

A notice in the Shanghai Times , 22 January 1944, states "In order 
to make a complete official list, all Indian nationals who have not yet 
registered vdth the Indian Independence League are urgently requested to 
register before the end of the month, otherwise much inconvenience may 
arise to the defaulters," It would seem that the Indians of Shanghai have 

It 


not been in a hurry to join the League and the mention of "inconvenience 









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- vii - 

suggests that enrollment is not altogether a voluntary matter. 

The appearance of Subhas Bose on the scene gave a great impetus to 
the movement, A former Congress President with a large following in India, 
an able leader, widely considered to bo a sincere patriot, he vrauld have 
had little difficulty in persuading even the hesitant that an opportunity 
was at hand to drive the British from India, Generally speaking, it may 
be concluded that the Japanese have been successful in mobilizing Indian 
opinion in their favor. 





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3niaii'r<f-» fl X?s*t»t d—i ■rv'* *1 •»'- a-i 









INDIAN MINORITIES IN SOUTH AND EAST ASIA: 

THE BACKGROUND OF THE INDIAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEICTT 


INTRODUCTION 


In all countries of South and East Asia novv occupied or controlled 
by the Japanese the Indian residents have organized Independence Leagues, 
ttie purpose of which is to free India, with the aid of the Japanese, 
from British domination. Those Leagues were established under Japanese 
sponsorship in the early days of the war, and by June 1942, vi^hen 
representatives met for a conference at Bangkok, a large membership vms 
claimed for each country. Increased activity follov;ed the arrival of 
Subhas Bose a year later. Chief in importance was the formation of the 
Independence Army, composed of Indian volunteers. 

In order to assess the potentialities of this movement, it is 
essential to have available tlie facts concerning the Indian populations 
of these areas; vital statistics; social and economic position; the 
degree to v^rhich Indians were organized before the war, and for what pur¬ 
pose; contacts with nationalist and other groups in India; attitudes to¬ 
wards Japan, The following account of Indians in Soutli and East Asia 
attempts, insofar as possible, to provide the facts. 






itco 

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1 





- 2 - 



I. INDIANS IN BURMA 


A, Populatioh Stati stics 

Politically a part of India until 1937, Burma had a largo Indian 
population. According to the most recent estimate available, Indians in 


Burma numbered 1,017,825,^ The 1941 figure would be somev/hat higher. 


Since roughly 400,000 Indians escaped from Burma at the time of the tJapan- 
ose invasion, the present Indian population is probably betv/een six and 
eight hundred thousand, 

1. Geographic Distribution . The following account of the distribution 
of the Indians in Burma is taken from the 1931 census, A.t that time 93 
percent of the total number of Indians were concentrated in the delta, 
coast and center subdivisions. Forty-two percent lived in Rangoon and Akyab 
district. In Rangoon, Indians formed 63 percent of the population and in 
Akyab district, 33 percent. In northern Burma the number of Indians Vv^as 
small except for Myitkyina district v^here there were 17,000; a large 
number of these were Gurkhas who had settled there, and in addition there 
was a considerable number of Indians among the military police. 

2. Racial Affiliations, The following table classifies Indians by 


race:^ 


Race 


Number 
of Persons 


Number per 
thousand persons 


Bengali 

Chittagonian 

Hindustani 


65,211 

252,152 

174,967 


64 

248 

172 





1 Census of India 1931, Vol, II, Burma 

2 Ibid., ¥t. 1, p.“2F7 



















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- 3 - 


Table cont’d. 



Race 

Nuraber Number per 

of Persons thousand persons 

Tamil 

149,888 

147 

Telugu 

159,759 

157 

Oriya 

62,585 

61 

Others 

153,263 

151 

"Others” include 39,532 

Gurkhas and 28,289 Punjabis. 


The largest single group is 

the Chittagonian, of which 74 

percent were 

located in Akyab district. 

Over 50 percent of the Indian 

population wore 


from Worth India, Tamils and Telugus together constituted less than 33 
percent, 

BiJ^thplace , The majority of Indians in Burma are immigrants to 
the country. In 1931, 62 percent of the total number of Indians in Burma 
had been born outside the country. Hovx'ever, the district of Akyab presents 
a striking contrast to conditions elsewhere in Burma; in that district 
only 21 percent had been born outside Burma, There is also a consider¬ 
able difference in the percentages for males and for females. For Burma 
as a ivhole 72 percent of the males had been born outside Burma, v/hile only 
36 percent of the Indian females v/ere foreign born. Here again x\icyab is 
not typical of Burma as a whole: 30 percent of the males, and 7 percent 
of the females v/ere born outside Burma, 

■ It is interesting to contrast the racial classification of Indian 
immigrants ivith that of the Indian population of Burma as a whole,^ 


1 op, cit,, p, 62 








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- 4 - 


Race 

Persons 

Bengali 

39,809 

Chittagonian 

83,511 

Hindustani 

125,054 

Oriya 

57,906 

Tamil 

84,327 

Telugu 

131,727 

Others 

107,757 


It y/ill be noted that while the largest single group of Indians in Burma 
is composed of Chittagonians, the Tolugus form the largest single group 
among Indian immigrants to Burma* 

4, Sex and Age Grouping . The sex ratio for Indians in Burma is typical 
of an immigrant population. In 1931 there were 387 females per thousand 
males. For the Indian immigrant group considered separately the sex ratio 
was 191, The various racial groups among the immigrants differ consider¬ 
ably in this respect. The Tamils had the highest sex ratio with 43 females 
per 100 males; the figure for the Telugus was 21; for Bengalis 13; for 
Oriyas 3, 

The age distribution per 10,000 Indians is indicated in the follow¬ 
ing table. The district of Akyab is omitted in the calculations since 
"figures for the whole province would be representative neither of the 
Akyab district nor of the remainder of the province,"^ 



IVhole Province less 

Akyab district 

Age Group 

Males 

Females 

0-5 

565 

1,732 

5-10 

535 

1,292 

10 - 15 

576 

1,085 

15 - 20 

1,023 

1,030 

op, cit,, p. 77 















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Table cont’d 


- 5 - 


Age Group 


Whole Province less Akyab district 
Males Females 


20 - 30 
30 - 40 
40 and over 


3,051 2,227 

2,389 1,363 

1,861 1,269 


5, Religious 

Groups, The follov/ing table 

classifies 

Indians by 

Ligion,! 







Actual Population 



Religion 

Persons 

Males 

Females 

Per 1,000 
Persons 

Hindu 

565,609 

425,389 

140,220 

556 

Muslim 

396,594 

271,514 

125,080 

390 

Buddhist 

12,600 

9,778 

2,822 

12 

Christian 

30,135 

18,015 

12,120 

30 

Sikh 

10,896 

7,882 

3,014 

11 

Others 

1,991 

1,333 

658 

2 


It is important to note that over half the Indian population is Hindu by 
religion, Muslims form the only other large group. Another fact of some 


importance is the large number of female Muslims compared to the proportion 


of females to males in the other religious groups. It appears that this 


is largely due to the inclusion of Akyab district in the enumeration; in 
this district, where many of the Indian Muslims are permanent residents, 
the sex ratio is 787, while it is only 246 for the rest of the country. 

The overall figures for Muslim females given in the table above are tliere- 
fore misleading: \vith the exception of Akyab district the proportion 


among Indian Muslims is one female to every four males, while among 
Indian Hindus, there is one female per 3 males. 




1 op. cit., p, 227 

















1 






r 









- 6 - 



6. Occupation. The following 

table shov/s the 

chief 

occupations of 

Indians in Burma 





Indians Born 

Indians Born 

Occupations 

in Burma 

Outside Burma 

Exploitation of animals 




and vegetation 

67,366 

108,842 

Exploitation of minerals 

402 


14,350 

Industry 

7,178 


97,489 

Transport 

5,510 


96,020 

Trade 

9,151 


87,060 

Public Force 

617 


13,378 

Public Administration 

1,012 


12,810 

Professions and Liberal Arts 

1,593 


8,825 

Persons living on their income 283 


1,546 

Domestic Service 

2,339 


21,687 

The table given below brings 

out more clearly the 

difference with 

respect to occupation betv/een Indians born in Burm 

la and 

those born out- 

side, 2 The distribution by occupation of 1,000 workers 

is indicated. 


Indians Born 

Indians Born 

Occupations 

in Burma 

Outside Buma 

Production of raw materials 

486 


249 

Preparation and supply of 




material substances 

374 


578 

Public Administration and 




Liberal Arts 

55 


75 

Miscellaneous 

86 


98 


It is possible to make a rough classification of racial groups by- 
occupation, Bengalis as a rule are employed in government service or 
■work in a clerical capacity, while some are shopkeepers or traders; in 
addition a number of Bengalis are mechanics. The Chittagonians are en¬ 
gaged in small craft traffic and furnish labor for ships and launch crew; 



1 op. cit ., pt, 2, p, 186 

2 "Taken from a table in pt. Ij p. 134 of the Census 













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mojiy of this group work in mills and dockyards. The Tamils are usually 
engaged in agriculture or work in the rice mills, but middle class members 
of this group are employed in various clerical activities, A small but 
very important minority among the Tamils are the Chettyars, the money¬ 
lenders and the principal financing agency in the country, Telugus for 
the most part work in mills and factories, though many are rickshaw 
pullers, porters and carriers. Hindustanis from the United Provinces 
serve as v/atollmen and messengers,, and many are petty vendors. The 
Oriyas vrork on railroads and in the Public Works Department on road 
construction; some are engaged in mills and dockyards, Gurkhas are 
generally cultivators, though some are to be found in domestic service, 
Punjabis work largely in railway and motor workshops, doclcyards and 
foundries as mechanics and overseers,^ 

7, Summary, The Indian population in Burma is largely an immigrant 
group composed chiefly of people from the southern and northeastern parts 
of India, The Indians are for the most part concentrated in southern 
and central Burma, and nearly one half of them were in Akyab and Rangoon, 
Both the age grouping, vdiich shows a majority between the ages of 15 and 
40, and the sex ratio, with a great preponderance of males, are typical 
of an immigrant group. Over half of the Indians are Hindus, and Muslims 
who are largely located in Akyab district, are next in respect to 
numbers, Indians generally speaking, are laborers, though an appreciable 
number of immigrants are engaged in adiainistrative and professional 
activities. 


1 cf. E.J.L. Andrews, Indian Labour in Rangoon, Calcutta, 1933, p. 35-37 







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B. Relations between Bunnans and Indians 


A fact of outstanding importance in considering the position of 
Indians in Burma is the hostility of the Burmans towards the Indian 
immigrants and residents in the country. This hostility has an economic 
base and has been intensified since 1930 due largely to the economic 
depression and to the fact that rising Burman nationalism has tended to 
make capital of economic grievances and the exploitation of Bi^rman 
resources by foreign elements. This hostility was never veiled, and in 
1938 severe riots broke out in which Indian lives and property suffered 
at the hands of the Burmans, The Riot Inquiry Committee in discussing 
the causes of the disturbances drew attention to the fact that while in 
1930 Indian Chettiars occupied 6 percent of the total occupied area in 
the thirteen principal rice-growing districts of Lower Burma, in 1937 
they had acquired possession of 25 percent. This did not take into 
account the areas over which the Chettiars held mortgages,^ The city of 
Rangoon and its business was to a large extent in Indian hands. Indian 
owners and landlords paid over 55 percent of the total taxes of the city, 
and all large private bazaars v;ere Indian-owned,^ The depression resulted 
in a drain on the resources of the poorer class of Burmans who were forced 
to turn to industries where Indians w'ere already established, and this 
led to additional dissatisfaction, 

/inother grievance against the Indians was the problem created by 
intermarriage between Burman women and Indian men. Objections on the 

1 cf. Interim Report of the Riot Inquiry Committee , Rangoon, 1939, p, 12 

2 op, cit,, p, 17 













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K'> * yifQtitaaxb ni ^ *V- ' •aavfru;^ <icid to sbnAp i*i 

Hi titiilTf ;Xoi't oixy ilo ^iit. 




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*^TF .: -fjo S ^ 












- 9 - 




part of Burnans to such marriages were based ’’sometimes on the ground 
of t?ie race purity of the Burmese nation, sometimes on the fear that 
mixed marriage may tend to remove a portion of the population from 
Burraese nationality and from the national religion and sometimes on the 
ground that it results in material hardship,Under Burmese law a 
v;idow fares better than under either Muslim or Hindu lav;. The question 
of the Eurman woman’s status was also involved; since laws pertaining 
to marriage differed, a Buddhist Burman woman might consider herself 
a married woman under Buddhist law, but would not be so considered under 
either Hindu or Muslim law, 

Burmese nationalism has made an issue of the position of Indians 
in Burma since 1916, Fnen the separation of Burma from India came 
up for discussion in 1932-33 "the v;hole question of Indians in Burma 
v;as thrown into the political arena, attention became focussed upon 
it, and the whole question,,.received a prominence and a reality 
which it never before assuriied and possibly does not deserve,,., It v;as 
continuously represented as a menace to Burma’s national life and 

p 

even to the Buddhist religion,"*^ 

Indians in Burma, and this applies to those domiciled in the 
country rather than to the shifting immigrant population, were conscious 
of being a racial minority and jealous of their status as a separate 


1 op . cit ., p. 33 

2 op, cit ., p. 23 







t.vjrr, .{I-: ,^.r, ■ S - . . .,-v V .'i R, ^.rurH 'io 

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- 10 - 


political group, Indians had formed a separate electorate as early 
as 1922, and at the Round Table Conference in London in 1931-32 the 
Indian delegates demanded that separate ele ctorates be continued to 
safeguard their interests. This insistence and the separate elect¬ 
orate in the present constitution v«rere contrary to Burman desires, 

C, Indian Organization 

It is probably a safe assumption that members of the laboring 
classes had fev/ definite opinions regarding political affairs in 
India, The majority of the educated Indians in Burma appear to have 
sympathized with the aims of the Indian National Congress, Yfith few 
exceptions the Indian owned and edited nev/spapers v/ere pro-Congress, 
though moderate in tone, Burma had its own provincial Congress 
Committee, the members of which were nearly all Indians, and delegates 
regularly attended the annual conference of the Congress, After the 
separation of Burma, the provincial committee was abolished and in 
its place the Burma Committee w'as set up to work for the freedom of 
Burma,^ This comraittee continued to elect manbers to the All India 
Congress Committee and in 1939 tv/o Indians and one Burman, all from 
Rangoon, were elected. 

Other Indian organizations included the All Burman Muslim 
League, and the Burman Provincial Hindu Sabha, founded in 1930, It 
is not knov/n whether or not these were branches of National organ¬ 
izations in India; the All Burman Muslim League appears to have had 


1 cf. Modern Review, March 1938, p, 370 














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- 11 - 




some connection with the All India Muslim League, but probably was 
not directly affiliated v/ith it. The Young Chulia Muslim League v/as 
an organization of Tarail Muslims from Madras. Another organization 
was the All Burma South Indian Association. Most of these groups 
appear to have been concerned mainly v/ith the advancement of Indians 
in Burma, and the improvement of their social and economic status, 

II. INDIANS IN THillDUTD 
A. Population Statistics 

It is impossible to state accurately tiie number of Indians 
living in Thailand, According to the 1931 Census of Thailand, Indians 
and Malays together numbered 379,618, Since 272,484 of these were 
located in Pattani Circle, an area adjoining Malaya, presumably the 
great majority of the total number are Malays.^ Dr, Lanka Sundaram, 
v>iho spent some time investigating the condition of Indians in Thai¬ 
land, estimated that there v/ere 100,000 in tiie country. His figure 
included Burmese Indians and Karens^ but even if allov/ance is made 

ri 

for a possible total of 50,000 Karens this figure seems high, A 
brief account of the Indians in Thailand published in the Indian 
Review^ gives 10,000 as the total Indian population. The Indian Year 

1 Statistical Yearbook of the Kingdom of Siam 1931-33. Bangkok, 1933, - . 

p. 67 

2 cf. Radhakanal Mukerjee, Lc lligrazioni Asiatiche, Rome 1936, pp, 32 

and 212 

3 cf. H,I, Marshall, The Karen People of Burma . Columbus 1922, p, 3 

4 September 1935, p, 623 
















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- 12 - 


Book for 1940-41 states that there are approximately 5,000 Indians 
in Thailand and the same figure is given in the Indians Abroad 
Directory by S. A. Waiz,^ Some figures from the Statistical Yearbook 
of the Kingdom of Siam may be considered as evidence favoring accept¬ 
ance of the last estimate as more nearly correct. The numbers of 
Indians arriving at the Port of Bangkok from 1918 to 1933 are listed 
in Table 18.2 figures va.ry from 708 in 1919-20 to 293 in 1919-32; 

generally from 300 to 500 Indians per year entered Thailand during 
this period. Table 19 lists departures from Bangkok during the same 
period. The number of Indians leaving Thailand by the port of Bang¬ 
kok varied from 250 in 1927-28 to 600 in 1925-26. Table 20 lists 
arrivals of aliens at Bangkok, and presumably included persons arriv¬ 
ing overland, probably from Malaya, as well as by sea. In 1931-32 
the number of Indian arrivals was 1,333; in 1932-33, 1,195, These 
figures do not support an estimate of 100,000 Indians resident in 
Thailand, Five thousand may probably be considered a reasonable 
minimum, with 10,000 as the outside limit. 

Little can be said concerning the place of origin of these 
Indians. Virginia Thompson^ states that two-thirds of the Indian 


1 cf. Radhakamal Mukerjee, Le Migrazioni Asiatiche , p. 212, ilhiz’s 

book, published in Bombay 1933 is not available for reference in 
this country, 

2 Statistical Yearbook, op, cit ., p, 84 

3 Thailand; The Ne\v Siam , New York 1941, p, 139 














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- 13 - 


merchants were Tamils from south India, Vi/hile the other third were 
speakers of Hindustani, It is evident from her account that there 
were also some Sikhs, Mukerjee mentions ”a fair number of South Indians” 
and ’’a few Muhammadan agriculturists from Eastern Bengal” who entered 
Thailand by v/ay of Burma, 1 

Of 1,333 Indians arriving in Bangkok during the year 1931-32, 

894 v/ere married males, 284 were unmarried, adult males. There were 
only 49 married females, and 17 unmarried females over 15 years of 
age. The largest number of Indian males (410) were betiiveen the ages 
of 25-35; 775 were between the ages of 15 and 25, There were only 
19 males aged 65 and over, and children under 7 years numbered only . 

44, Although these data refer to only a section of the Indian popu¬ 
lation, they suggest that the average Indian iimiiigrant is a male, that 
he comes to Thailand at the age of 25; and it is possible to infer 
from the scarcity of ivonen and children among the immigrants that the 
average Indian resident of Thailand is a transient who regards India 
as his home and expects to return after a few years. It should be 
noted, hov/cver, that two Thai informants, Dang Tilaka and Tularaksa 
stated in conversation that Indians in Thailand regard themselves as 
Thai rather than as Indians and have become permanent residents of the 
country. It seems probable that this observation refers chiefly to 
second generation Indians, 



1 op. cit., p. 114 





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- 14 - 


B. Economic Status 

The majority of the Indians in Thailand are merchants, A few, 
probably Sikhs, are employed in the Bangkok police force; others serve 
as watchmen and messenger boys.^ The Yearbook fcr the Kingdom of Siam 
lists the occupations of 1,178 male Indians aged 15 or over who arrived 
in Thailand during 1931-32: 


General Laborers 

8 

Professional 

57 

Commercial 

583 

Agricultural, etc. 

2 

Personal and Domestic 

371 

Theatrical, etc. 

7 

Others 

150 


Some, at least, of the Indians are well to do. A, E. Nana and Bhagwan 
Singh are said to be among the largest landowners in Thailcnd.^ The 
Sikh community in 1933 spent- Tcs. 80,000 (|35,200) to build a temple 
in Bangkok,^ 

C. Indian Organizations 

There were two Indian organizations in Thailand, The Indian 
Association of Siam was founded in 1930'^and A. E, Nana became its life 
president with Hira Lall as secretary. Baboo Chhangur Singh was presi¬ 
dent of the second organization, the Hindu Dharma Sabha (Hindu Religious 
Society), There was also the Thai-Indian Cultural Lodge, founded by 


1 Virginia Thompson, op, cit ., p. 139 

2 Information provide'H^y Mr, Tilaka and Mr, Tularaksa 

3 Virginia Thompson, op, cit ., p. 140 

4 Virginia Thompson, op, cit ., p. 140 











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- 15 - 


Swami Satyananda Puri, to foster cultural relations between Thailand 
and India. It is doubtful whether there were any political organizations 
as such among the Indians prior to 1941. Messrs. Tilaka and Tularaksa 
have expressed the opinion that attempts to establish organizations of 
this type would have been discouraged and that furthermore Indians as 
a whole were not vitally interested in political developments in their 
homeland. As followers of Gandhi, Indians sympathized v/ith the Indian 
National Congress, but there seems to have been no local branch of 
the Congress in Thailand, 

D. Early History of the Indian Independence League in Thailand and its 

Founders 

Many, if not most of the Indians probably regarded the Japanese 
invasion with some apprehension, Indians and other Asiatic subjects 
of Great Britain in Thailand were assured by the Japanese that they had 
nothing to fear. Nevertheless, on 14 and 15 December 1941, about 50 
Indians, ’’including some principal agitators", tried to escape and were 
arrested. The Bangkok Times in a notice of this affair stated that 
"in viev/ of the fact that the establishment of an Indian association is 
being planned to collaborate with the Japanese Irmy force and because 
some Indians are enthusiastically cooperating v«rith the Japanese Amy 
force, those who were arrested were especially liberated under the 
guarantee of the founders of the association,"^ The notice concludes 


1 16 December 1941 











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- 16 - 


with a warning that no mercy will be granted in the future. 

There were undoubtedly a few individuals in the community who 
v/ere ardent nationalists with a record of participation in subversive 
activities in India, The end of 1941 found them eager to take the lead 
in organizing their countrymen behind the Japanese program. One of 
tliese was Giani Pritam Singh, v^rho had been in Thailand since 1933, He 
was born in Lyallpur district in the Punjab, of a ’’respectable” Sikli 
family, and educated at a Sikh missionary college. During the years 
from 1920-30 he participated in the Akali movement, during the course 
of which Akali Sikhs come into conflict with the Government of India 
over questions of religious reform, V/lien in 1930 the government fired 
upon the Red Shirts, a nationalist group in the North Y^est Frontier 
Province, Giani Pritam Singh, together with 300 other Akalis, went 
to Peshawar to protest against the government's action. He was 
arrested in Gujerat and jailed for a year and a half. It has been 
stated that while in prison he come into contact with Indian nation¬ 
alist leaders. In April 1933 he was invited by the Singh Sabha, a 
Sikh religious organization, to go to Bangkok as a ’’lecturer”, and as 
far as is known he did not return to India,^ 

^Inother Indian revolutionary in Thailand when Japan entered the 
war v/as Amar Singh, During the last war he engaged in seditious 
activities in India and seems to have been involved in one of the 


1 Bangkok Times, 2 April 1942 








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- 17 - 


various plots to obtain India’s freedom with German aid. The Bangkok 
Times^ states that ’*he is the person who acquired 100,000 rifles from 
Germany during the last great war," In 1917 or 1918 he was imprisoned 
and sent to the Andamans, /vfter his release in 1940 he went to Thai¬ 
land where he joined forces with Giani Pritam Singh,^ Together they 
started an anti-British movement in which they are said to have re¬ 
ceived help from the Japanese government. These two men probably formed 
the nucleus of what later became knovai as the Independent League of 
India. It is doubtful if there was any organization, properly speaking, 
before the end of 1941, A note in the Bangkok Times for 12 February 
1942, says that the Independent League, of which Giani Pritam Singh 
was the leader, "though it had its origin before ^he declaration of 
war by Japan/ did not do any work openly." It is further stated that 
Giani Pritam Singh "had come to an understanding witli the Japanese 
Goverrmient concerning the Independence of India". The entry of Japan 
in the war found these men anxious' to play a more active role. On 
9 December 1941, the Bangkok Times carried an advertisement signed by 
a Representative of the Independent League of India: "Attention all 
Indian residents in Thailand. All patriotic Indians who v/ish to serve 


1 7 February 1942 

2 Bangkok Times, 2 April 1942 


















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- 18 - 

their Motherland India are requested to enlist their respective names 
at 1840 (Green House) Saphan Maha Megh." Two days later the same nev;-s- 
paper contained an appeal to Indieuis to look to Japan to free India, 

This was signed by "Diarni Pistan Singh", very probably a garble for 
Giani Pritam Singh.^ 

A third Indian who achieved considerable prominence in the early 
days of the war with Japan was Swami Satyananda Puri, Profulla Kumar 
Sen, as he was named, was born in 1902 in Bengal, He was educated at 
Calcutta University where he obtained the degree of M.A. During his 
student days he was a member of the Anushilan Samiti, a society for the 
promotion of culture and training, which, however, functioned chiefly as 
an organization "to arouse public opinion against the Government by 
circulating seditious literature, popularizing revolutionary songs, and 
organizing secret associations," ^ His connections with this group 
landed him in jail. While still a young man he became a follower of 
Tagore and Gandhi. He decided to become a sannyasi (holy man), and 
having made over his entire property to the National Congress, wandered 
about in India for four years and spent another three years meditating 
in the Himalayas, He was afterwards appointed Professor of Oriental 
Philosophy at Calcutta University and hold this post for t^vo years, dur¬ 
ing which time he founded the Society of Oriental Culture, In 1932 

1 Bangkok Times, 11 December 1941 

2 I'U R. Smith, Nationalism and Reform in India, Now Haven, 1938, p, 72 










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- 19 - 

Tagore vms requested by the Royal Family of Thailand to send an Indian 
as unofficial cultural ambassador to Thailand. Tagore selected Sv^/ami 
Satyananda, I'Vhile in Thailand, the Sv/ami wrote several books on Indian 
history, philosophy, etc., as well as a biography of Gandhi in the Thai 
language. There is no indication that he had any dealings with the 
Japanese prior to December 1941, nor does he seem to have been associated 
with Araar Singh and Giani Pritam Singh. On 22 December 1941, Swami 
Satyananda gave notice in the Bangkok Times of a meeting to inaugurate 
an Indian National Council for tlrxe Freedom of India. The council was 
formed several days later and the S^wimi became its president with 
Debnath Das as secretary, 1 

For some time the t^vo groups, the Independent League of India and 
the Indian National Council for the Freedom of India, continued as separate 
organizations. The first appears to have been the more active. Some of 
its members, including S. Kishan Singh, Babu Sudarshan Aouja, and 
Bhagwan Singh went to Malaya in December 1941, to do propaganda work 
among the soldiers of the British Indian army. 2 They apparently met 
with a certain amount of success, but an article in the Bangkok Times 
comments that some of the soldiers "it seemed, had lost their sense of 
reason and stayed where they were," -3 Giani Pritam Singh vjent to Malaya 
shortly after its fall and was instrumental in founding branches of 

1 Bangkok Times, 24 December 1941 

2 Bangkok Times, 28 January 1942 

3 Loc. cit. 














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- 20 - 


tho League in that country, ^ 

Towards the end of March 1942, Swami Satyananda Puri and Giani 
Pritan Singh were killed en route by air to Japan. In May 1942 the Indian 
National Council and the Independent League merged; the union is reported 
to have been brought about by Colonel Gill, "a very senior officer", 
formerly of the army in Malaya, Debnath Das became general secretary 
and Amar Singh was made a patron, 2 

Such information as is available indicates a general lack of en¬ 
thusiasm on the part of the Indian community for this Japanese-sponsored 
organization. It is said that the merchants of Thailand are forced by 
threat of boycott to become members of the League and to contribute to 
its funds. Many of them apparently are becoming Thai citizens in order 
to avoid this pressure. 


III, INDI/'.NS IN 114LAYA 
A. Population Statistics 

Indian emigration to Malaya in modern times dates from the beginning 
of the nineteenth century. Today Indians form over 12 percent of the 
total population of the country. According to an estimate made in 1937, 
they numbered 754,849, Detailed information relating to the Indian 
population, hov;ever, is taken from the 1931 Census of British Malaya 
v/hen the total number of Indians was 624,009, The follov/ing table ^ 


1 op. cit ., 27 March 1942 

2 Bangkok Times, 15 May 1942 

3 taken from 'Table 1 in A Report on the 1931 Census of British Malaya 













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shows the distribution of Indians in the political subdivisions of 


Malaya: 


Singapore 51,019 
Penang 58,020 
Malacca 23,238 
Straits Settlenents 132,277 


Perak 159,152 
Selangor 155,924 
Negri Senbilan 50,100 
Pahang 14,820 
Federated Malay States 379,996 


Johore 51,038 
Kedah 50,824 
Perils 966 
Kelantan 6,752 
Trengg,anu 1,371 
Brunei 377 
Unlocated 408 


Following is the Indian population of the principal towns ^ 


Singapore 
Kuala Lunpur 
Alor Star 
Penang 
Taiping 
Serenban 
Johore Bahru 
Ipoh 


Total Population 

445,719 

111,738 

11,596 

149,403 

31,881 

21,650 

21,777 

53,183 


Indian Population 

51,019 

25,342 

2,746 

58,020 

7,726 

4,087 

3,220 

12,301 


About five-sixths of the total Indian population are Tanils 


from South India, The following is a tabulation according to sectional 
groups of tiie Indians in Malaya, 2 


1 op. cit,. Table 17, 18 

2 cTt. , p, 83 












- 22 - 


Tamil 514,959 
Telugu 32,541 
Malayali 35,125 
Punjabi, etc. 31,001 
United Provinces 1,898 
Bengal, etc. .1,833 
Burmese 1,160 
Bombay, etc. 1,388 
Bihar and Orissa 219 
Nepal 490 
Other and unidentified 3,395 


As regards religion, the great majority are -^lindus, as might be expected 
considering the great preponderance of Tamils in the population. The 
Mohammedans are also chiefly from southern India, especially the 
Malabar coast, but in addition there is a number of Pathans, Punjabis, 
and natives of Bombay and Bengal in the Muslim group. The follov;ing 
table lists Indians by religion.^ 


British Malaya Straits Settlements F. M. S. 


Hindus 

509,202 

93,793 

322,272 

Mohamm. 0 dans 

56,506 

24,797 

20,184 

Sikhs 

18,130 

4,326 

12,117 

Christians 

36,614 

8,507 

23,787 

Buddhists 

1,204 

398 

562 

Others 

2,303 

456 

973 

The following 

table shov;ing-age 

distribution per 

1,000 Indians 


2 

indicates clearly the immigrant nature of the population. 


1 op. cit ., p. 89 

2 op. cit., p. 65 








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Age 

Male 

Fema: 

0-10 

136 

279 

10-20 

124 

173 

20-30 

312 

290 

30-40 

275 

162 

40-50 

138 

78 

Over 55''- 

15 

13 


As in alraost all countries where Indian immigrants are found, 
the number of males is greatly in excess of the number of females. In 
1931 there were 421,028 males and 202,981 females. The several racial 
groups, however, show wide variation in the sex ratio, /miong the 
Tarails there were 514 females per 1,000 males; for the Telugu, the 
figure was 717; for the Ivlalayali, 209; for the Punjabi, 263. 

In British Malaya as a whole, about one-fifth of the Indian 
population is Malaya born. It has been reliably estimated that the 
’’average duration of the southern Indian’s continuous stay in Malaya 
is under three years#" ^ As the following figures show, there is little 
variation bet^veen different areas with regard to the nuraber of Indians 
born in Malaya and those born elsewhere, 

Indians born in Malaya Indians born elsewhere 


Number 

Percent of total 

Indian population 

Nimiber 

Percent of total 
Indian population 

Straits Settlements 30,236 

23 

101,974 

77 

F. M.S. 84,036 

22 

295,903 

78 

131,505 

21 

491,919 

79 


It should be noted that between 1921 and 1931 the percentage of Indians 
born in Malaya greatly increased. For British Malaya as a whole in 


1 op, cit., p, 71 





















24 - 


1921 only 12.4 percent of the total population "was born in Malaya, 
while 87,6 percent were born elsewhere. Presumably this tcndancy has 
continued and the 1931 figures therefore cannot be considered typical 
of conditions today, Lennox A. Mills, writing in 1942, remarked that 
Indian labor in Malaya is nov; in a transitional stage, "Formerly 
the labourer migrated to Malaya for two or three years and then re¬ 
turned to India with his earnings. Today the majority still return 
to their villages, but increasingly they com© back to Malaya, often 
accompanied by relatives and friends, and oven more important, v/ives,.. 
During the past decade the number who have been in Malaya and regard 
it and not India as their home has been growing..,On a few of the 
older plantations the majority of the labourers have boon born on the 
estate," ^ 

B. Principal Occupations 

In British Malaya (exclusive of Brunoi) 189,998 Indians includ¬ 
ing men and women, were engaged in the cultivation of rubber, 2 of 
these 101 were estate owners, managers, and as.sistants,.-^The 42,650 
Indians-employed in comiaerce included proprietors and managers of 
businesses, salesmen, shop assistants, peddlers, moneylenders, etc. 
Most of the 25,595 Indians occupied in transport and communication 


1 British Rule in Eastern Asia, p. 236 

2 This is based on the 1931 census, from which all the following 
figures are taken. According to the International Labour Review , 
July 1940, Vol. XLII, No. 1, p. 66, the number of Indian Laborers 

. on estates was 214,610 in 1938, This probably includes coconut 
plantations as well as rubber estates, but undoubtedly the figure 
for 1940 was considerably higher than that for 1931, 












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- 25 - 



were railway laborers, drivers of vehicles, bullock cart oivners and 
drivers; in the Straits Settlements a large number worked as dock 
laborers, boatmen and lightermen. Only in the Federated Malay States 
was there a large number of Indians in the mining industry. The total 
number was 6,189 and over half of these were in Perak, Laborers, 
general and indeterminate, numbered 61,237; 5,712 v/ere in the police 
force, most of these in the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay 
States. In the unfederated states the total number of Indians in 
the police force was 266. With the exception of four comiaissioned 
officers and inspectors among the Indian police, all were in tlie r<anks; 
these four v/ere in Singapore municipality. Of the 920 Indians in the 
army, 736 \vere in the Federated Malay States, with 94 in the Straits 
Settlements and 70 in Johore. One in Singapore and six in the 
Federated Malay States were comir.issioned officers. 

Broadly speaking sectional groups are associated with occupational 
divisions. Thus the Tamils, Telugus, and Malayalis are for the most 
part engaged in the cultivation of rubber. The Punjabis are found 
mainly in and near the large towns. A considerable proportion ’’are 
accounted for by the Police Forces, they are also extensively employed 
as watchmen...and frequently combine money-lending with this and 
other pursuits. In suburban and rural areas, they are characteristically 
associated vdth stock farming and bullock cart driving.” ^ Natives 
of Bombay are usually shopkeepers, and the Bengalis, who are few in 


1 Census of 1931, p. 86 







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number, are also engaged in occupations other than agriculture. 

In summary, the Indian population of Malaya consisted chiefly 
of Tamils from South India who were occupied on plantations or en» 
gaged in menial labor of various types. The length of their stay in 
Malaya was short and their ties were with the homeland, where for 
the most part their familes remained and to which they returned. 

There v/ere no trade unions, and opportunities of developing a spirit 
of independence and cooperation v/ere slight. Situated on isolated 
plantations, these Indians were almost completely under the control 
of the employers and cut off from the outside world,^ A small number 
of Indians were located in the tov^ns and engaged in business or pro¬ 
fessional activities. For the most part these were northerners who 
apparently had little contact with their fellow Indians from the 
South in a lov/er economic class, Emerson contrasts the Indian pop¬ 
ulation with the Chinese in Malaya, who, rich or poor, have a feel¬ 
ing of kinship with each other, "Aiaong the Indians this is far from 
being the case; the Tamils and other south Indians are a despised 
proletariat who have virtually no bohd joining them to their alleged 
brethern from other parts of India who have done better for themselves 
in Malaya," ^ 

C. Indian Associations 

In almost every tov/n in Malaya there v/ere Indian associations. 


1 cf. note on Indians Abroad by pandit H, N, Kunzru, Servant of 
India 1939, p, 61-62 

2 Rupert Emerson, Malaysia , New York, 1937, p. 34 










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27 - 


and delegates chosen from these met once a year to hold the All-Malayan 
National Congress, This annual conference was founded in 1927 by Mr. 

S. Veerasamy, one of the most prominent Indians in the country who in 
1931 represented the Indian community in the Federal Council. In 
1936 a Central Indian Association was founded in Kuala Lumpur, Its 
objects were "(a) to promote and safeguard the political, social and 
economic interests of the Indians in Malaya; (b) to represent, express 
and give effect to Indian public opinion; (c) to consider all questions 
affecting the interests of the whole or any section of the community; 
(d) to take steps to promote or oppose legislative or other measures 
affecting the interests of the whole or Jiny section of the community; 
and (e) to do all such things as may be conducive to the furtherance 
of the above mentioned objects or any of them." 1 How far any of 
these associations were representative of the Indian masses is not 
known. Probably the membership was drawn almost entirely from the 
urban population. 

However, these organizations proved to be useful nuclei for 
the present Indian Independence Leagues, and several of the Indians 
who were prominent in the old associations are today actively aiding 
the Japanese, ^ It should not be assumed from this fact that the 
Indians in Malaya were, previous to the Japanese invasion, primarily 




1 Indian Review, November 1936, p, 696 

2 See Appendix 


















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- 28 - 


or actively interested in the Indian struggle for independence. With 
regard to the masses of the Indian population it is doubtful if they 
took any interest in political affairs, either of India or Malaya, It 
has been said that the Hindu merchants of Singapore were mostly loyal 
to the Indian National Congress;^ and when Jav/aharlal Nohru visited 
Malaya in 1937, he ‘was very enthusiastically received. There appears, 
however, to have been very little contact with the Congress group in 
India, As is indicated by the program cited above, the Indians in Malaya 
were more concernedwith advancing their political and economic position 
in the country of their adoption than in working for the independence 
of India. 

D, Indians under British Administration in Malaya 

Indians believe that they have serious grievances in regard to 
their treatment by the British in Malaya. Numerically they have a 
strong claim to consideration, and the prosperity of the country un¬ 
doubtedly owes much to their labor. Indians criticized the Government 
of Malaya for failure to safeguard the economic interests of the Indian 
laborer. Wages have been low and the means of livelihood uncertain 
for the past decade. During 1931-32 v/hen the rubber industry suffered 
from the general depression, large numbers of Indians were throve out 
of work; wages were reduced by 20 percent from the 1928 figure of 50^ 
per day. According to proposals made by the Government of India, 


1 cf. Ian Morrison, Malayan Postscript, London, 1942, p. 31 









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73,000 Indians wero repatriated free of cost and all recruitment of 
labor in India was brought to an end. As conditions improved, assisted 
immigration was resumed in 1934 at the request of the Malayan Govern¬ 
ment, vvages remained low until 1936, when, acting ori the advice of a 
deputation from India, the Malayan Government restored half of the 
cut imposed in 1930. B'inally in 1937 wages wero raised to the former 
level of per day for men and 40;^ for women, when the rubber in¬ 
dustry again deteriorated in 1938 the wages of Indian v/orkers were 
once more reduced, but with the advent of war and the increase in 
the price of rubber, wages were fixed at 50jZ^ per day; the coat of 
living, however, had greatly increased and the laborer did not profit 
from the war in ‘any material v/ay. 

Indians declare that facilities for education of their children 
have been unsatisfactory. In Penang, Malacca, and Singapore, there 
was not a single Government Tamil school, in spite of large numbers 
of Tamil government employees in these places.^ 

In regard to public services and representation in public bodies, 
Indians believe that their status was not coimnensurate with their 
importance, Indians were not permitted to enter the Malayan Civil Service, 
and they had no municipal or political franchise. There was one non¬ 
official Indian member nominated to the Federal Council and another on 


1 cf. Rammanohar Lohia, Indians in Foreign Lands, Allahabad, 1938, p, 25 











- 30 - 



the Straits Settlements Legislative Council*^ 

IV. INDIMS IN INDOCHINA 

It is impossible to state the exact number of Indians living in 
Indochina; 6,0CDis probably a fair estimate. About half of these are 
from French colonies in India, and for the most part they have es¬ 
tablished themselves in Cochinchina, though there are about 350 in 
Cambodia. The natives of British India are nearly all Muslims from 
the northern provinces.^ There is also a fairly largo group of 
Chettyars from South India;^ and a few parsis from Bombay engage in 
import trade,^ 

Indians from French India are for the most part minor government 
employees, postmen, policemen, assistant registrars, customs or excise 
clerks. The Muslims from British India are shopkeepers and pawnbrokers, 
cashiers and watchmen. The Chettyars, or moneylenders, most of whom 
are located in Cochinchina, where, in 1937, there were 120 Chetti firms, 
form the v/ealthiest group among the Indians, They ovto a considerable 
amount of land and engage extensively in trade. In Cochinchina alono, 
Chettyars own one-fourth of the total rice-growing area. In 1933, their 
business methods and the hold they had acquired over the agriculture 

1 cf. Dharaia Yash Dev, Our Countriymon A broad. Allahabad, 1940, p. 53-54 

2 Pierre Tap, French Indochina, Asiatic Review , April 1937, p, 368 

3 Indian Review, November 1940, p. 688. A note refers to an article 
in Illustrated Weekly by Nilkant Perumal 

4 RadlTakaiaa 1 Mukerjee, Le Migrazioni Asiatiche . Rome, 1936, p. 114 
















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cf the country aroused wide-spread antagonisin* As a result of the 
depression, the Chetti system of short-term loans resulted in great 
hardship particularly for the agriculturists. Five Chetti bankers 
■were expelled from Indochina on ’*the alleged ground that they created 
political disturbances in the country,”^ Later on the order of 
expulsion was canceled but the French authorities by establishing 
long term credit offices have considerably underrained the position of 
the Chettyars, and in the first eight months of 1933 about 65 percent 
of the Chetti capital "was removed to Burma, Malaya, and India, It 
seems probable that the Chettyars 'who remain form a dissatisfied 
group, hostile to continued French domination in Indochina, 


V. INDIANS IN N.E.I. 

In the Netherlands East Indies there were, according to the 1920 
Census, 27,684 Indians, Of these 12,654 were born in the area; 15,030 
were born abroad, presumably for the most part in India, though it is 
possible that emigrants from Malaya were a numerous group.^ The men 
outnumber the women by about two to one,^ The Indians located in 
Java and Sujaatra number 25,638, the greater proportion of these being 
in Java. In Dali and Western Lombok there is ”a handful of Indiiins,” 


1 Lanka Sundaram, The Chettiars of Indochina, Modern Review, September 

1933, p. 302 ' 

2 International Labor Office. Studies and Reports Series 0, No, 6, 

World Statistics of ^iliens ” ~ 

3 S.A. Reitsma, Van ^ockum’s Travellers’ Handbook for the Dutch East 

Indies. The Hague, 1930 

























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and a few more in Dutch Borneo,^ 

Speaking of the Indians generally, the Handbook for the Dutch 
East Indies says, "The majority are Mohammedans and.come from the coast¬ 
al districts of Coromandel and Malabar* Many are found in the plantation 
areas of Deli as coolies, car drivers, cattlemen, etc., owing to their 
fine physique, these so-called Klings *.. are engaged as night-w^atchuen 
on the plantations. In Ja.va they are mostly smaller shop-keepers. They 
are conspicuous owing to their height, heavy grov^th of beard and large 
turbans,”2 This reference to height and growth of beard suggests that 
there is a Sikh element in the Indian population, 

VI. INDIANS IN CHINA 
A, Population Statisti cs 

The principal Indian colonies in China are in Shanghai and Hong¬ 
kong, Indians in Hongkong numbered 4,745,^ These included the troops 
which formed part of the garrison, the Sikh contingent of the police, 
and a few mercL.uits and clerks,'^ According to the 1921 census of 
Hongkong, about 85 percent of the adult male Indians were employed as 
police or vvatchraen, or in various government departments. Most of the 
Indians were Punjabis or natives of the North V/est Frontier Province, 

1 Radhakamal Mukerjee, Indian and Chinese habour in the iigricult^^re of 

South East Asia, Modern Review, December 1933, p, 670 

2 op, pit ., p, 61 

3 "International Labor Office, Studios and Reports , Series 0, No, 6, 

V/orld Statistics of Aliens, p. 124 

4 Lennox A, Mills, British nule in Eastern Asia, London, 1942, p. 388 























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33 - 


In 1930 there were 1,842 Indians living in Shanghai.^ "Practically all 
of these Indians were brought to Shanghai originally as policemen,,, 
but after completing their term of enlistment, many remained liore to 
engage in business or professional activities."2 por the most part the 
Indians of Shanghai are Sikhs, 

B. Indians in China and Indian Nationalism 

Indians in China have taken an active interest in Indian political 
affairs for many years. Before the last war, in both Hongkong and 
Shanghai there were Ghadr (revolution) societies, affiliated with similar 
orgo.nizations on the west coast of the United States and elsewhere, 3 
which conspired for the overthrow^ of the British government in India, 

A number of Indians,in Hongkong and Shanghai were involved in the 
Komogatu Maru affair in 1914. In order to test Canadian immigration 
lai/vs which made it practically impossible for Indian immigrants in 
Canada to bo joined by their wives and children, and also to "embarrass 
the British government by compelling it either to interfere with Canada’s 
iiTimigration policy or to suffer a furtlxer loss of popularity in India. 

A Japanese vessel, the Komogatu Llaru, was chartered by a Sikh named 
Gurudutt Singh, a man prominent in the Far Fast. The ship sailed from 
Ifongkong to Canada with 351 Sikhs and 21 Punjabi Muslims recruited at 


1 All About Shanghai, 1934-35 edition, Shanghai 1934, gives the 1930 

Census figure, 

2 China b'eekly Review, 6 July 1929 

3 cf. Sir Michael 0^Dwyer, India as _I Knevj It. London, 1925, p. 193 

4 W. R, Smith, Nationalism and Refo'rm in India, New Haven, 1933, p. 79 



















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34 - 


Hongkong, Shanghai, Moji and Yokoheuna, The great majority of the 
passengers were not permitted to land in Canada, During the return 
trip war broke out and for various reasons the passengers were not 
allowed to land at the ports of embarkation but were taken to Budge 
Budge in Bengal, These men formed the nucleus of the agitation in 
the Punjab which lasted during the v;ar and for several years after. 
Other conspirators arrived shortly after the Komogatu Maru, and these 
also v/ere for the most part Sikhs from America, Japan, Manila and 
Sh:uighai who had been in touch with German agents en route to India,^ 
The disturbances in the Punjab which those men helped to further were 
for a time directed by Rash Behari Eose,^ 

From 1920 to 1940 Indian political development in China was in¬ 
fluenced by two separate organizations, the Indian National Congress 
and the Chinese Kuomintang Party, Reliance on methods of terrorism 
viras modified by the Congress policy of passive resistance, and the 
growing strength of the Congress in India encouraged increased 
activity among the Indians in China. At the sam.e tine the development 
of nationalism in China proved an inspiration to the Indian group. 

To a certain extent the Comjaunists also played a part, but their in¬ 
fluence on the Indians in CPiina does not appear to have been very great 
at any time, and was probably much less after the break occurred be¬ 
tween Chiiiing Kai-shek and the Chinese Communists, 

1 cf. Sir Michael O’Dwyer, India as I Knew It , London, 1925, p. 195 

2 see p, 45 







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- 35 - 


C. Indian Organiz ations 

In 1927 soiTie Chinese members of the Kuomintang, some Koreans, a 
few Filipinos, some Japanese "proletarians” and a number of Indians 
formed the Eastern Oppressed Peoples^ Association.^ The organization 
was formed originally when the radical section of the Kuomintang v^ras 
in power, and its headquarters v/er.e in Hankow, Later on these v/ere 
moved to Nanking, and the organization remained under the protection 
of the Kuomintang party. It has been said that Jawaharlal Nehru 
sponsored the establishment of the Eastern Oppressed Peoples’ as-' 
sociation,^ It is possible that the idea v«ras conceived at the 
Brussels Congress of Oppressed Nationalities at which Nehru "was present, 
and in which the leftist members of the Piuomintang played an active 
part. 

The Indian section of the Eastern Oppressed Peoples’ Association 
in Nanking published for some years a bi-Vveekly called Ghadar Dhandora 
(Declaration of Revolution). 

In line vdth the sympathy expressed by the All India Congress 
Committee for China in her struggle for freedom, and the Coirimittee’s 
condemnation in 1927 of the action of the Government of India in send¬ 
ing Indian troops to China, and the demand for their withdrawal^ the 

1 China Weekly Review, 6 July 1929 

2 K.M. Pannikar, The Future of South-East Asia, London, 1945, p, 79 

3 B. Pattabhi Sitar^nayya, ~Tho History of tho Congress . Allahabad, 

1935, p. 530 


















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Indians in China engaged in propaganda among the Indian troops stationed 
at Shanghai, These troops on their way to China, had been subjected 
to propaganda to the effect that Indian temples ixi China were being 
destroyed, women violated, etc. ’’But they were met, almost at the dock, 
by certain men of their own nationality, v/ho v/ere working for the cause 
of Indian freedom among the large groups of Indian police and watchmen 
already in Shanghai....The reaction of the troops when they discovered 
the untruth of the stories which had been circulated araong them was 
great.As a result, these troops had to be sent back to Hongkong, 

Later two more battalions, Punjabis v/ho spoke a different dialect from 
that of the Indian nationalist v/orkers in Shanghai arrived, but these 
too v/ere infected with syinpathy for the Chinese cause. Expenses of the 
Indian organization are alleged to have been paid by donations from 
Chinese friends and members of the Kuonintang, On the whole, the 
Indians in Shanghai v;ere too poor to contribute large sums to the move¬ 
ment, though they gave what they could afford,^ 

It has been stated that there v/ere tv/o groups of Indian agitators 
in Shanghai at this time. One group believed in "the passive resistance 
policy of Mahatma Gandhi, their leader," vhile the second group consisted 
of Communists "v;orking for the complete overthro^v of British rule in 
India and its members are fanatical believers in the most radical measures 

1 China IPeekly Review, 6 August 1927 

2 cf. loc . cit. 

3 loc. cit. 


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Gujjan Singh, Daswanda Singh, and Gainda Singh v/ere raembers of this 
Communist group* An Indian, M. N. Roy, was in Cnina at this time as a 
delegate of the Communist International, It is not knovm, hov/ever, 
whether or not he played any active role in the Indian organizations; 
certainly during this period he was more concerned with developments 
in China than in India, 

Harchan Singh, an Indian nationalist of Shanghai and a member 
of the Eastern Oppressed Peoples’ Association, v/ho had taken part in 
the propagandist activities referred to above, v/as murdered in 1929, 
Shortly before his d^ath he had compiled a list of Indians in Shanghai 
who were alleged to be in the employ of the British Indian Secret 
Service,! Five Indians, also members of the Eastern Oppressed Peoples’ 
Association were charged with his murder. These vigj'o Norang Singh, Sadku 
Singh, Mewa Singh, and Karm Singh,^ They were acquitted of the charge 
of murder but shortly after rearrested on charges of sedition, and were 
given jail sentences to be followed by deportation,^ About this time 
five other Indians, also Sikhs, Ishar Singh, Indar Singh, Hakim Singh, 

Asa Singh, and Narain Singh were arrested on charges of sedition. They 
were accused of reading aloud in a Sikh temple in Chapei nationalist 
papers received from Inhio., This temple had been closed in 1927 by 
the British authorities "on the grounds that the promises were being 


1 op. cit,, 4 liay 1929 

2 ^it ., 18 May 1929 

3 op, cit,, 6 July 1929 







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used for Bolshevik propaganda,”^ but it was reopened in 1928. The 
seditionists in question were sentenced to prison with hard labor 
and later deported,2 

In 1930, while civil disobedience was in progress in India there 
W'ero a number of other arrests on charges of sedition among the Indians 
of China, The Indian Youth League of China issued several manifestos 
condemning British rule and calling upon all Indians to fight for a 
free Asia,^ In June 1930 the British police raided the League head¬ 
quarters and made tv/o arrests. In July of the same year Zapuran 
Singh distributed pamphlets printed in English and Chinese and pub¬ 
lished by the E.0,P,A, lie was sentenced to two months hard labor 
and deportation.'^ 

The Indian Youth League which had its headquarters in Chapel 
had "some kind of agreement with the Kuomintang and Bureau of Public 
Safety,"^ which enabled it to hold meetings o.nd carry on political 
activity. The leaders were young -v/orking men who were literate and 
intelligent. They kept in touch with events in India and informed 
their countrymen in Shanghai by means of leaflets, magazines and 
pamphlets as well as public meetings, Chanan Singh and Kartar Singh, 
leading members of the League, and Surjan Singh were arrested in 


1 op, cit,, 21 April 1928 

2 cit,, 18 May 1929 

3 op, cTt ,, 17 and 31 May 1930 

4 cit,, 26 July 1930 

5 cit., 10 January 1931 









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December 1930. All vvere tried for sedition, and tivo of the men v/ero 
sentenced to imprisonment and deportation,^ 

The instances cited above are probably only a fev/ of raany such 
cases of friction between the Indians and the British in China. They 
are, hov/ever, indicative of the degree to which the Indians were 
organized and of the enthusiasm felt there for the cause of national¬ 
ism of India, 


VII. INDIANS IH J.IPAU 

A, Indian Population of Japan 

According to the Japan Year Book for 1938-592 there were 874 
Indians resident in Japan, Of these, 670 were males. For the most 
part the Indian group consisted of businessmen and students, located 
chiefly in the largo cities, Tokyo, Kobe, Yokohama, w-ith a few in 
Osaka, 

B, Indian Revolutionaries of Japan 

Japan has for many years been a refuge for Indian patriots of 
various hues. After the Russo-Japanese w’ar, Indians generally regarded 
Japan with admiration and respect, and to a great extent looked to 
Japan as the leader of Asia, At the sarae tiiiie certain groups in 
Japan pursued the policy of actively encouraging revolutionary tend¬ 
encies in Asiatic countries, especially those under Zuropean domination. 

y 

1 loc . cit . 

2 Tokyo, 1939 

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- 40 - 


The story of the Indian nationalist movonent in Japan is a 
sunnary of the life histories of a small nuiaber of Indian revolution¬ 
aries who used their contacts with the Japanese to further tlieir 
omi, and what they believed to be their country's, ends. In the 
background of this Indian movement stands Mitsuru Toyama, the power 
behind almost all the Japanese patriotic societies. It is not to 
be doubted that Toyama conspired with these Indians, extended to them 
his patronage and protection, and used them for his own ends.. 

1. Maulvi Mohammed Br.rkatulla 

Maulvi Mohammed Barkatulla was one of the earliest Indian 
revolutionaries vjith contacts in Japan, Ho v/as born in Bhopal in 
1868 and educated in Bombay and London. He become a strong advocate 
of Pan-Islamism and extremely anti-British. In 1909 he wns appointed 
to the chair of Hindustani in Tokyo Foreign Language School, and while 
in Japan he founded a paper called Islamic Fraternity, which he 
edited for some years. In 1911 he traveled for a time in Europe, 
visiting Cairo, Constantinople, St. Petersburg and Paris, v/here he 
came into contact with Krishnavarma, one of the best knovm Indian 
exiles of that period. On his return to Japan "the tone of his 
paper became so anti-British that it v/as suppressed by the Jap'mese 
Government in 1912, Early in 1914 he was deprived of his appoint¬ 
ment in Tokio.,."^ From Japan, Barkatulla v/ent to the United States, 


1 Sir Michael 0’DT.’.ryer, India as I Knew It, London, 1925, p. 186 











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There he joined forces with Har Dayal v/ho had, a few years previously, 
founded the Ghadr (revolution) Party anong Indian iimaigrants settled 
on the West Coast, In March 1914 Har Dayal was arrested by the United 
States Government and ivas about to be deported as an undesirable alien 
when he, together with Barkatulla, fled to Switzerland, The outbreak 
of the war found these t^vo in Gemany, In Berlin, Har Dayal and 
Barkatulla, with Chattopadyaya and Pillai, well-knovm Indian sedition- 
ists, directed the activities of the Ihdian Revolutionary Society, 
and conspired with the aid of Germany to overthrow the British 
Government in India, In 1915 Barkatulla and Raja Mahendra Pratap^ 
went to Kabul, where they formed tho Provisional Indian Governiaent, 
During tlie war this ’’government” "continued to encourage seditious 
agitation in India and hostile action by the frontier tribes,... 

After tho war...it threw all its influence into promoting the rebellious 
outbreaks in India in April 1919,"^ 

In 1927 Barkatulla rex3rosented the Hindustan Ghadr Party at the 
Brussels Congress against Imperialism, and later in the same year, 
he died in San Francisco. 

2, Hariharnath Thulal-Atal 

Hariharnath Thulal Atal v/as another Indian who sent to Japan 
in the early days of the twentieth century. Like Barkatulla ho 
held the chair of Hindustani in Tokyo Foreign Language School. In 


1 see p, 42 

2 op, cit,, p. 181 












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- 42 - 

1914 the Department of Education, according to report, wanted to re- 
nevf his contract, but the British authorities would not permit it.d 
Atal stayed on in Japan but the British began to "harass hira in every 
way", 2 and finally in 1921 he coraitted suicide, 

A memorial ceremony, arranged by Rash Behari Bose, was held in 
Tokyo, 14 June 1931, in honor of Barkatulla, Atal and Vikramratne* 

The last of these three lived in Tokyo for a few years v/here he worked 
with Bose "for the cause of Indian freedom,"^ He died in Ceylon in 
1928. 

3. Raja Maliendra Pratap 

One of the most interesting, and certainly the most picturesque 
of all the Indians in Japan is Raja Mahondra Pratap, a native of the 
United Provinces and formerly a wealthy landowner, Hiether or not 
he played any part in the seditious movements of the period in India 
is uncertain. Ho is said to have founded Erindaban National University, 
of which he became President, and to have been the o'vvner of a news¬ 
paper Narmalsewak. At the outbreak of tlie war in 1914, ho wont to 
Europe and came under the influence of Har Dayal. Through him, Pratap 
had an interviev/ with the Kaiser, who, "impressed with a megalomania 
akin to his ovn",'^ sent Pratap with Barkatulla to Kabul, He became 
a citizen of Afghanistan and continued to live there for some years, 

1 cf. Voice of India, 15 July 1931 

2 loc . ci^ 

3 loc . cit , 

4 Sir Michael O’Dv/yer, India as I Knew It, London, 1925, p. 177 













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In 1925 Pratap, acconpaniGd by Dasvmnda Singh, a student at 
California University, started out for Tibet and Nepal to see whether 
they "could do any service to India from these countries,"^ "Indian 
friends in California," probably members of the Ghadr organization, 
collected money to pay the expenses of the trip, A member of the 
Kuomintang party went along as interpreter and Charan Singh seems 
to have been a member of the group. To the various Chinese generals 
Pratap met along the way, he presented a copy of his book. The 
Religion of Love. Shortly after this, in 1926, he went to Japan, 
but for some reason he was not permitted to reAain there. It has 
been suggested that the British autliorities objected to his presence 
in Japan, and he returned to Afghanistan, He had, according to his 
own account, "no political ambition for the time being, 

About 1930 he was sent by the Government of Afghanistan on an 
economic "mission" to America and on his way home, he stopped in 
Japan, From there ho went to Vladivostok where he was informed by 
the Soviet authorities that he could not proceed further. On his 
return to Japan, he learned that the Afghan government did not v/ant 
him in the country for the time being; Pratap declared himself at a 
loss to explain this,^ He seems to have gone to Peiping shortly after 
this, where he published a monthly called World Federation , and busied 


1 Modern Review, Vol. 45, 1929, p, 589. Article by Raja Mahendra 

Pratap^ In China. 

2 loc. pit . 

3 cf7 Voice of India, 15 July 1931 














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- 44 - 




himself collecting |1,000 for a building to serve as a permanent office 
for l/orld Federation . Early in 1933 he returned to Japan, The Voice 
of India , organ of the Indian Nationalist group in Japan, published 
a statement by Pratap who signed himself The Servant of Mankind, and 
announced that he had temporarily closed his Peiping office. He 
stated that if Japan would realize that the British Empire was work¬ 
ing for Japan’s destruction, Japan could come to dominate Asia*^ 

PAien the Pan-Asiatic Congress was held in Dairen in 1934, Pratap 
attended it. He proceeded to Canton where he tried to organize an 
Oppressed Oriental Races Eraancipation Society, ^ but ho was arrested 
by the Canton government authorities and deported to Shanghai. He 
was again arrested in Shanghai, but ’’friends'* secured his release,^ 

The China, ■n'eekly Review reported that "It is understood that the 
Afghan is !:an leader is in Shanghai on some mission on behalf of the 
Japanese.According to the Japan Meekly Chronicle , Pratap spent 
his time addressing the Sikh police. On his return to Japan Pratap 
set out to visit Siam. In 1935 he again visited the United States. 

It was said that his reception was rather cold and that he found the 
"atmosphere not suitable for his message.’’® 

1 op, cit,, 15 March 1933 

2 "^ina ^'"eekly Review, 7 April 1934 

3 Voice of India, August 1934 

4 7 Ap'riT"1934 

5 5 April 1934 

6 Voice of India. October 1935 





























- 45 - 


Pratap has never been one of the most influential Indians in 
Japan, As far as is kno^vn he has never held office in any of the 
numerous Indian organizations, and he seems never to have worked in 
close collaboration with Rash Behari Bose, Ideas of T’orld Federation 
and Pan-Asianiara have been obviously more appealing to hira than the 
narrow cause of Indian freedom. He is not at present an important 
figure, and is said to be regarded as a crank by his fellow Indians, 
although a fev; of the Indian students in Japan have become his disciples, 
A recent report suggests that Pratap has not been able to reconcile 
Japanese imperialism with his ideas of world federation. It has been 
stated that he refused, "though pressed hard to do so," to attend the 
Japanese-sponsored Bangkok Conference in June 1942,^ 

4. Rash Behari Bose 

T.Ue most prominent Indian in Japan today is Rash Behari Bose, 

He was born in Bengal in 1886 and educated in Calcutta, For a time 
he was employed as a clerk in the Forest Research Institute, but 
while still a young man he became involved in the Indian revolutionary 
movement, in which Bengalis played so large a part. In 1910-11 he 
came under the influence of Har Dayal, who had recently returned from 
Europe and after Har Dayal went to 7\merica in 1911, Bose became one 
of the leaders of the movement. He was probably one of those re¬ 
sponsible for the attack on the Viceroy of India in 1912. From 1912- 
15 he directed terrorist activities in the Punjab, but when a number 
of the ringleaders were arrested, Bose fled to Japan, The Japanese 




1 Amrita Bazar Patrika, 29 May 














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Government ordered him to be deported, but he was protected by Mitsuru 
Toyama, and to avoid further trouble he took out Japanese citizenship 
papers. He married the daughter of a Japanese who kept a restaurant 
and eventually succeeded to the business. 

The Japanese TJho* s liTho for 1937 lists him as a journalist, 
lecturer, author and correspondent of Indian newspapers. This account 
is probably somewhat flattering. His reputation as a journalist rests 
chiefly upon the fact that from time to time he has written articles 
for several newspapers, among them the Calcutta Forward, He claims 
authorship of several books in Japanese on the Indian nationalist 
movement, but it is doubtful whether he has written them himself, 

Bose is said to be politically honest and scrupulous, and sincere 
in his efforts to v/in freedom for India, According to reports he is 
equally ccrvjncod that this can be obtained with Japanese aid. Asked 
in 1933 why he did not return to India, he replied that he would come 
at the head of armed forces which would enter India by way of Assam, 

He is said to have Communist leanings and to have had contacts with 
the Soviet Embassy in Tokyo. 

5, Anand Mohan Sahay 

Anand klohan Sahay is one of the few Indians in Japan who were 
over closely connected with the Indian National Congress, ^e was born 
in 1898, the son of a landlord in Bhagalpore in the province of Bihar, 
and was educated a+-. Patna University, where he studied medicine, Wien 
the Congress ur-ged students to boycott government institutions, he gave 















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up his work at the University and joined the independence movement. 

He worked actively with the Bihar Provincial Congress Committee, In 
1923 he set out for America via Japan, to study medicine, but decided 
to settle in Japan to "work for the promotion of Indo-Japanese friend¬ 
ship and dissemination of correct information regarding India in 
Japan, 

Since that time he has remained in Japan, According to his 
biography in the Japanese Tho^s Who for 1937 he is journalist, writer, 
educator, teacher and lecturer on India, Japan, Asia, and international 
problems. He was also for some time professor at Kobe Foreign Language 
School, Sahay is said to be completely unscrupulous, dishonest and 
insincere in political matters. One informant (name ^vithheld) believes 
he could be bought by anyone prepared to pay the price of securing 
his suppo.' .o 'ihe same source accuses him of extorting funds from 
Indian merchants to support himself and his various enterprises, Sahay 
and Bose are extremely jealous of one another and continually at logger- 
heads, Sahay is probably the cleverer of the two men, 

C, Indian Organizations in Japan . 

One of the earliest Indian organizations in Japan was the Indo- 
Japanese Association, founded in Tokyo about 1905 by the Rev, Dharmapala 
and Mr. Sakurai, Viscount Nagaoka was the first president and was 
succeeded by Marquis Okuma,^ Valentine Chirol, vj'riting in 1910, 


1 ■'yifho’s Yftio in Japan, 1937 

2 Young East, Vol. 1, No. 4, September 1925, p. 134 













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stated that this society had "no connection with politics and the 
Indians claim that it is run for the benefit of the Japanese rather 
tlian for theirs. Those v/ho have joined it in the hope of using it as 
a base for anti-British operations have certainly got very little for 
their pains. They occasionally ivrite papers for the very fev>r socialist 
papers of Japan, but their effective contribution to the cause is of 
trifling account,"^ By 1937 this organization had no Indian members, 
and during the previous decade its main activity was the development 
of economic relations between India and Japan,^ 

The Indian National Congress Committee of Japan was organized 
in 1928, with its headquarters in Kobe, A,M, Sahay v/as one of the 
loaders of the Committee and retained control over it,^ D,P, 

Mahabubani of Nobe was a delegate at the annual session of the Indian 
National Congress in 1928, T}^^ Committee has for some years published 

the Voic e of I ndia, with A, M, Sahay as editor. Originally the paper 
was published in English as a monthly, but was later printed in 
Japanese and English and usually appeared every fortnight. Congress 
activities in India were well covered, and considerable space v;as 
given to the activities of the committee in Japan, In 1931 the 
committee opened the India Lodge to accommodate India students study¬ 
ing in Japan, 

It is probably incorrect to assume that the committee had any 
close connection with the Indian National Congress, Sahay claimed 

1 Indian Unrest,..London, 1910, p. 148 

2 Voice "of India, August 1937, p. 15 























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that it was recognized by the parent organization in 1929,^ but accord¬ 
ing to report, Kripalani, the General Secretary of the Indian Congress 
wrote to Sahay denying that this was the case, and pointing out the 
fact that it was contrary to Congress policy to establish or recognize 
branches outside of India. 

Other Indian organizations include the Indian National Association 
founded about 1930 with branches in Yokohama, Kobe and probably else¬ 
where; and the Japan-Indian Society of Kansai, established about the 
same time. In 1931 Rash Behari Bose organized the Indian Independence 
League, which had as its object "the attainment of Independence for 
India by all possible means."2 Bose became the first president, and 
P. S. Deshpande secretary of the League. The League functioned as a 
rival organization to Sahay*s Japanese Congress Committee. The Indo- 
Japanese Young Peoples’ Association "I'Vas formed about 1934-35 "to 
encourage the study of Indian and Japanese problems."^ The Gandhi 
Society of Tokyo, a small and poorly organized group, seems to have 
been chiefly interested in economic relations between India and Japan. 

It is said to have been ideologically opposed to Gandhi and scornful 
of the doctrine of non-violence. 

There were in addition to these, various Indian social and 
business organizations, such as the Indian Social Society, and the 
Indian Merchants Association. 

1 Voice of India, December 1935 

2 Voice ^ India, 15 September 1931 

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Vila::.. iraiAN NATIONAL CONGRESS .U^D INDIANS OVERSEAS 


The general attitude of the Indian National Congress to Indians 
abroad is best summed up in a resolution passed by the Congress at its 
annual session in 1936, "The Congress sends greetings to our fellow- 
countrymen overseas and its assurances of sympathy and help in their 
distressful condition and in the continuing deterioration in their 
status in the territories in which they have settled. The Congress is 
ready and willing to take all action within its power to ameliorate 
their condition, but desires to point out that a radical amelioration 
in their status must ultimately depend on the attainment by India of 
Independence and the power effectively to protect her nationals 
abroad.’*^ Except for numerous resolutions, dating from the early days 
of the Congress, which did little more than express s^-npathy with 
the plight of Indians overseas, interest on the part of Congress in 
their problems has been slight. This is especially true of Indians 
in Southeast Asia. Gandhi’s early connections with South Africa, 
where Indians are settled in large numbers, has tended to focus 
attention on that area, while Indians in Southeast Asia, except in 
times of crisis such as the riots in Burma or the severe economic 
depression in Malaya, have been more or less ignored. 

The Indian National Congress has never to any extent developed 
contacts with Indians abroad for political purposes. The Congress 


1 Dharam Yash Dev, Our Countrymen Abroad, Allahabad, 1940, p, 90 









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?/orking Conmittee in 1936 passed a resolution advocating the establish¬ 
ment of a foreign department "with a view to creating and maintaining 
contacts with Indians overseas and v/ith international labor and other 
organizations abroad with whom cooperation is possible and is likely 
to help in the cause of Indian freedom."^ This department, however, 
was not very active and beyond issuing a circular to Indians overseas 
inviting them to keep in touch with the Congress, and printing a short 
pamphlet on Indians abroad, did very little to fulfill its expressed 
function. The unofficial visit of Jawaharlal Nehru to Burma and 
Malaya in 1937 probably served to arouse the interest of Indians in 
these countries in the National Congress, but there seems to have been 
no attempt to follow this up with propaganda or definite programs. 
Sometime before 1940 the Congress opened a department of Indians 
overseas, and published a pamphlet entitled "Our Countrymen Abroad," 
This vms chiefly to inform the Indian people regarding conditions of 
Indians overseas, and to awaken interest in their problems. Perhaps, 
had the war not intervened, more active contacts with Indians overseas 
would have been instituted. 




1 Modern Review, April 1936, p, 465 







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- 52 . 


APPENDICES 

I. INDIANS IN BURMA 


Delegates from Rangoon to the Conference of Representatives of the 

IIL at Bangkok June 1942,^ 

Bannerjea, N. K. 

Buckle Balam, J, K. 

Chakravarti, N, 

Chanda 
Desai, T. 0, 

Ginwaila, A. 

Khan, Sheriff 
Khan, Yakoob 
Lathia, L. E, 

Mehta, C. P. 

Pillai, E. pounuswami 

Raudry 

Row, N. 

Sattar, A, 

Shaftee, Mohamed 
Singh; Chatar 
Singhf Lachman 
Taffar^ Mohamed 


Notes on Indians in Burma 

Gani, A. M. A. Karim: Editor of Tamil weeklies, Jauhar , Alhilal and 

Sooryan, Secretary, Young Chulia Muslim 
League. In 1931 elected President All Burma 
south Indian Association, Elected to legis¬ 
lative council in 1932; House of Representatives 
in 1936. Vice-President All Burma Muslim 
League in 1937. In 1940 became editor and 
publisher of Burma newspaper Do-Daung Lan. After 
Japanese occupation became Chairman' of Burma 
District Committee of IIL, and was delegate to 
conference at Bangkok.2 


1 Bangkok Times, 12 June 1942 

2 Government of Burma, Burma Handbook Simla 1943, p. 116 

















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- 53 


Lathia, L, B.: , Editor of Burma Oriya Patrika (Oriya weekly) 

and The Daily Gujerati, both pro-Congress 
newspaper^^ 

Mahmood, Sultan (Sultan Mohamad, Sultan Vakil): Born in Akyab, educated 

in Calcutta, Lower grade pleader in Akyab. 
Elected to House of Representatives for Akyab 
(Indian) constituency. ParliaPiientary Secretary 
in Ba Maw, U Pu and U Saw Ministries, /if ter 
Japanese invasion joined IIL and went to 
Conference at Bangkok, Organized branch of 
league at Akyab.^ 

Pillay, E, Pounuswami: Labor leader. At one time member of Legislative 

Council; Government of Buimia awarded him the 
T.P.S., an order usually given only to Burmans, 
for his vj-ork in the cause of humanity.^ 



1 op. cit., p. 118 

2 Bangkok Times, 26 June 1942 


















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- 57 




III. SOME PROMINENT IITDIANS IN IMLAYA 

Aiycr, K. A. Neelakandha: Secretary in 1938 of the Central Indian 

Association of Malaya, 

Aiyer, R, V,: Editor of The Indian, an English weekly 

published at Kuala Lumpur. ^ 

Cader, H. H. Abdul; '’...born in Surat, Bombay Presidency in 1890 

and is the eldest son of a ... well-known 
merchant of Penang, After being educated 
in Surat and afterwards at Raffles School, 
Singapore and the Free School, Penang 
proceeded to England in ... 1905 and joined 
the Country High School, Ilford. He 
matriculated there in 1903 and later he 
joined Lincoln’s Irm and Christ’s college, 
Cambridge University and took up Law Tripos, 
lie was called to the Bar in 1912 and had 
the honor of being presented to His Majesty 
King George V on March 11th 1912, 

”He returned to Penang in April 1912 and 
was admitted to the Straits Settlements Bar 
in ... the same year and to the F,M.S. Bar 
in 1915. Since then he is practising in 
Penang, He is the President of the United 
Indian Association, Penang and he is a 
representative of the Indian community on 
the Municipal commission, Penang since .., 
1925 .... He has travelled extensively on 
the continent and in India... 

"Appointed member of the Legislative 
Council of the Straits Settlements 23rd 
July, 1928," 2 

In 1929 he was President of the third all 
Malayan Indian conference which met at 
Singapore. 3 

Chandran, L, R,: Member of Central Indian Association, ^ 


1 Indian Review, March 1936, p. 208 

2 Modern Review, September 1928, p. 345 

3 Op, c i t., Feb^ruary 1932, p. 202 

4 Tndian Review, March 1939, p. 184 















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58 


Jummubhoy, R,; 
Menon, N. K.; 


Narayan, K. A.: 


Pillai, V. N.: 


Raghavan, N.; 


Sharma, S. M.: 
Soosay, A. M.: 


Veerasaniy, S,: 


Leading Indian businessman of Singapore.^ 

President of fourth All Malayan Indian 
Conference held in 1931 at Teluk iVnson, 
Member of Indian Immigration Committee, ^ 

General Secretary of All Malayan Indian 
Conference, Vice-president of Selangor 
Indian vissociation. e 

Justice of the Peace in Penang. Member of 
Indian Immigration Committee, Founder of 
various Indian organizations in Penang, 
Chairman of Indian Unemployment Committee 
in 1932. ^ 

President of Indian Association, Penang in 
1938. ^ Born in Cochin, Educated at a 
Christian college in Madras. Studied La-w¬ 
in England and -went to Penang as a lawyer 
in 1928, One of the Organizers of the 
Central Indian Association of Malaya, "In 
politics Mr. Raghavan is a staunch follower 
of Maha-fcma Gandhi and the Indian National 
Congress and he has always maintained con¬ 
tact vvith Indian nationalist Leaders," ^ 

Member of the Central Indian Association. 

President of the Central Indian Association 
in 1938. 8 

Well-laiovm Indian lav/yer in Malaya, and one 
of the founders of the All-Malayan ■^'‘ational 
Congress, Represented Indian community on 
the Federal Council in 1931.^ President of 
Selangor Indian Association, Kuala Lumpur, 


1 Modern Review, February 1932, p, 202 

2 Modern Review, February 1932, p. 202 

3 Loc. cit. 

4 Loc. cit., p. 676 

5 Indian Review, January 1938, p. 47 

6 Bangkok Times, 18 June 1942 

7 Indian Review, March 1939, p. 184 

8 Loc. cit., October 1938, p, 666 

9 Incrian R'eview, February 1931, p. 110 
10 op, cit., November 1936, p, 696 
























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- 59 


Members of the I XL of Malaya ^ 

The following were delegates to the conference of representatives of 
IIL at Bangkok, June 1942: 


/ihiTied, Major Aziz 
Cader, Janab H. H. Abdul 
Chan, Major Prakash 
Chon, Havildar Tara 
Chatterjee, Lt. Col* 
Chopra, S. N. 

Dalai, P. M. 

Das, B. K. 

Ditta, Capt. Allah 
Gillani, Lt. €ol. G. Q. 
Jahangir, Cap. D. D. 

Khan, Janab i\mir i*iohd. 
Kahn, Capt. Mumtaz 
Kiani, Capt. J. J, 
Kundanlal 
Lakshmeyeb, M. K. 
Logananda, Lt. Col. A. D. 
Mallal, Bashir 
Mailick, Capt. S. A. 
Mazumdar, D. K. 


Menon, K. P. K. 

Nawaz, Havildar Rab 
Pattanayek, Capt, 

Pillai, Sri ?. K. (?) 
Raghavan, N, 
Habib-ur-Rahaman, Capt. 
Raju, Major D. S. 

Ram, Lt. Babu 
Ramchandran, M. K. 
Seshan, Sri K. 

Shamugfim, Sri S. 

Singh, Lieut. Amar 
" Hardat 

" Dr ^ Jagat 

'* Capt. Mohan 

" Capt. Dhian 

" Liout. Kishan 

" Lieut. Paran 

" Sai-dar Badh 

" 2nd Lieut. Rattan 

Thivy, J. A. 


State 

Branch 

President 

Membership 

Kedah 

Alor Star 

Bhagwan Singh 

1000 


Pattani 

V. M. Kader 

200 


Kulim 

Hamir Singh 

500 

Perak 

Taiping 

Jal Manek Shah 

1000 


Kuala Kangsar 

Lalsingh 

1000 


Ipoh 

B. K. Das 

5000 


1 Bangkok Times, 13 June 1942 

2 Bangkok Times, 27 March 1942 

















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Kajang 

Klang 

Seramban 


60 - 


President 

Dr. Lakhshimya 

Zakariah 

Lachmanan 

Dr, Mazumdar 

Mr. Shanraugar Pillai 

Mr. Raghwan 

Ml'. Goho expected 


Total 

Membership 

40,000 

2,000 

? 

800 

no report 
7,000 
50,000 










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oECLAssmeo 

eEE EXCHANGE & GIET 0l¥i? « . ^ 
DECLASSIFICATION FILE f / 


U. 

/Office of Strategic Service 
Rearch & Analysis Branch 


R & A 1595S 

B» December 1944 


Bate 

Japanese Organization of Indian Minorities in East Asia 


The Japanese conquerors of East Asia have turned the twin instru¬ 
ments of power and propaganda to the organization of Indian Independ¬ 
ence Leagues among the Indian minorities of each country. This policy, 
which has served to consolidate the Japanese political position in occu¬ 
pied areas, is part of a program designed to exploit what they consider 
the greatest vulnerability of the Western powers in the Far East — anti- 
British feeling. 


Japanese anti-British propaganda, with its slogan of “Asia for the 
Asiatics,” and the policy of singling out the Indian communities for more 
favorable treatment, undoubtedly carried considerable appeal to Indians 
in East Asia. The Leagues set up were strengthened by deliberate avoid¬ 
ance of all communal (religious group) issues that might divide their 
ranks.jSince the Russo-Japanese war of 1904, furthermore, Japan has 
enjoyed increasing prestige as the one Asiatic nation able to establish 
herself as an independent equal of the Western powers. In the early years 
of World War II, Japan appeared to have established herself even more 
firmly in East Asia, and Britain’s defeat in India may have seemed a 
matter of months. Expediency demanded that the Indians cooperate with 
the Japanese. 


Only a few of the Indian Independence Leagues were based on pre¬ 
war nationalist organizations in East Asia. Many more were established 
by the Japanese special intelligence service {Hikari Kikan ), which is en¬ 
trusted with organizing fifth-column activities by minority groups in oc¬ 
cupied areas, and which moved into each country in the wake of the 
Army. Even by June 1942, a conference of League representatives in 
Bangkok claimed a large membership for each country. 


In several areas of East Asia the Independence Leagues have large 
Indian populations upon which to draw for membership. Indians are 
most numerous in Burma and Malaya, where they form a considerable 
portion of the laboring class. In Thailand and Indochina, on the other 
hand, they are a small, compact merchant community. The few Indians 
in China are for the most part former members of the British police force 
or army who remained in Hongkong or Shanghai when their term of 
service was completed. Both China and Thailand had a number of Indian 
political exiles and nationalists. In Japan a small group of Indian mer¬ 
chants, students, and exiled Indian patriots settled in the principal cities. 
Most of the Indians in East Asia are immigrants who return after a period 
to the country of their might be expected to be con¬ 

cerned with the fate of 

F.A.C. File No. 


■ 11 I 




yf- C0;\GRESS 


tn 


PUBL 


MAY 1^1962 


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B/ 7 > 


'A 




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Burma 

d Before the Japanese invasion, the main concern of Burman Indian 

JT organizations was the protection of the social and economic status of 
Indians in Burma itself. But since the arrival of Subhas Chandra Bose 
and the development in 1944 of his Japanese-sponsored campaign for 
Indian independence, Burma has become the headquarters of his move¬ 
ment. 

Until 1937, when it became a separate British Crown Colony, Burma 
was politically part of India. At the time of the Japanese invasion, it 
had over half a million Indians, the largest group of Indians in East 
Asia outside of India itself. By far the greater part of the Indians 
belong to the laboring class, but a small group was engaged in adminis¬ 
trative and professional work. A large number of Indian merchants had 
heavy financial stakes in the country, which they had accumulated 
through their money-lending and rice-selling activities. Although many 
of these escaped back to India, they left representatives to protect their 
interests and provided Bose’s movement with a source of funds. 

The Burmese are openly hostile toward the Indians, and consider 
them a menace to Burma’s national and economic life, and even to the 
Buddhist religion. The Indians themselves have long been conscious 
of being a racial minority and are jealous of their status as a separate 
political group. As early as 1922, Indians had formed a separate electorate 
which, under British auspices, was incorporated into the present con¬ 
stitution in the face of Burman opposition. Most of the educated Indians 
in Burma sympathized with the aims of the Indian National Congress. 

The imported laborers who formed the bulk of the Indian population 
were largely recruited from the northeastern provinces and were politi¬ 
cally inactive before the war. However, Indian National Congress propa¬ 
ganda may have influenced them to a certain extent while they were 
still in India. 

In 1942 the Japanese organized an Indian Independence League in 
Burma. The Indians showed little enthusiasm, however, until Subhas 
Chandra Bose arrived in 1943 to assume leadership of the League and 
to organize the Indian National Army. Bose was popular partly because 
many of the Indians had originally come from Bengal, the province 
where Bose had his largest following. 

At the time of the farthest Japanese military advance into India in 
the spring of 1944 Bose actually succeeded in establishing a Japanese- 
supported “Indian Provisional Government” on Indian soil. Although 
Bose’s forces were driven back with the Japanese, Burma continues to be 
the front line of Indian Independence League activity in support of the 
Japanese military effort. 

iD 

Malaya 

For the most part, Indians in Malaya, forming over twelve percent 
of the total population, are still more concerned with advancing their t-/ 

political and economic position in the country of their adoption than 


2 


I 



I 



in working for the independence of India. These Indians consist chiefly 
of Tamils from Southern India who work on isolated plantations or do 
menial labor of various types. Their stay in Malaya is short and they 
retain strong ties with the homeland. They have no trade unions and 
few opportunities to develop a spirit of independence and cooperation, 
and are almost completely under the control of their employers. Some 
Indians live in the towns and are engaged in business or professional 
activities. For the most part they are from northern India and have little 
contact with the lower-class Tamils from the South. This northern group 
and prisoners of war taken during the Japanese advance have formed the 
nucleus of Indian Independence League activity in Malaya. 

In almost every urban community in Malaya Indian associations 
were established before the war. Their declared object was “to promote 
and safeguard the political, social, and economic interests of the Indians 
in Malaya,” for neglect of which they criticized the British Government 
of Malaya. Indians believe that their status has not been commensurate 
with their importance. In addition to poor educational and employment 
conditions, they have not been permitted to enter the Malayan Civil 
Service, and have not been allowed to vote. 

Before the Japanese invasion, the Indians were not actively inter¬ 
ested in India’s struggle for independence. The masses of the Indian 
population took virtually no interest in the political affairs of either 
India or Malaya, and although Hindu merchants of Singapore were 
mostly loyal to the Indian National Congress, there appears to have been 
very little direct contact with the Congress. The Indians in Malaya were 
interested mainly in their own economic welfare. Nevertheless, the pre¬ 
war Indian associations have been useful to the Japanese. Several of 
the Indians who were prominent in the old associations are today active 
in the Indian Independence leagues. With the arrival of Bose in 1943 
Malaya became the headquarters for League activity and a large number 
of the training programs for the newly-formed Indian National Army 
were located there. 

Thailand 

The majority of the five to ten thousand Indians in Thailand are 
merchants. Although numerous religious or cultural societies existed, it 
is doubtful whether more than a few belonged to Indian political organi¬ 
zations there prior to 1941. As a whole the Indians were not vitally inter¬ 
ested in political developments in their homeland, and, although 
sympathetic with the Congress, they had no local branch in Thailand. 

Japan’s invasion of Thailand was probably regarded with appre¬ 
hension by most Indians, but a few individuals in the community were 
ardent nationalists with records of subversive activities and imprison¬ 
ments in India. The end of 1941 found them eager to take the lead in 
organizing their countrymen behind the Japanese program. One of 
these was Gianti Pritam Singh, who had been in Thailand since 1933. 


3 





Another Indian revolutionary in Thailand when Japan entered the war 
was Amar Singh. During the last war he engaged in seditious activities 
in India and seems to have been involved in one of the various plots to 
obtain India’s freedom with German aid. After his release from prison 
in India in 1940 he went to Thailand, where he joined forces with Gianti 
Pritam Singh. Together they started an anti-British movement in which 
they are said to have received help from the Japanese government. These 
two men probably formed the nucleus of what later became known as 
the Independent League of India. On 9 December 1941, they printed an 
appeal in the Bangkok Times asking all patriotic Indians to register their 
names and look to Japan to free India. 

A third Indian who achieved considerable prominence during the 
early days of the war with Japan was Swami Satyananda Puri, one-time 
Professor of Philosophy at Calcutta University, who went to Thailand 
in 1932. There is no indication that he had any dealings with the Japa¬ 
nese prior to December 1941, nor does he seem to have been associated 
with Amar Singh and Gianti Pritam Singh. But on 22 December 1941 
Swami Satyananda published in the Bangkok Times a notice of a meet¬ 
ing to inaugurate an Indian National Council for the Freedom of India. 
For some time the two groups, the Independent League of India and the 
Indian National Council for the Freedom of India, continued as separate 
organizations. The first appears to have been the more active, and some 
of its members achieved a certain amount of success among the soldiers 
of the British Indian army in Malaya after December 1941. Gianti Pritam 
Singh went to Malaya shortly after its fall and was instrumental in 
founding branches of the League there. Towards the end of March 1942 
Swami Satyananda Puri and Gianti Pritam Singh were killed in a plane 
crash en route to Japan, and in May 1942 the Indian National Council 
and the Independent League merged. 

However, the Indian community appears to have little enthusiasm 
for this Japanese-sponsored organization. The merchants of Thailand are 
said to be forced by threat of boycott to become members of the League 
and to contribute to its funds. Many of them are becoming Thai citizens 
apparently in order to avoid this pressure. 

Indochina 

In Indochina, where the Indians are a small group with almost 
exclusively commercial interests, the Independence League set up by the 
Japanese was received with passivity. Most of the Indians, and especially 
the Chettiars, or money-lenders, form a wealthy group which controls 
a considerable amount of land and trade. Hence they are not particularly 
concerned with India’s political future. 

China 

Many cases of friction between the British and the small, compact 
group of Indians in China reveal the degree to which the Indians were 


4 






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organized and the enthusiasm they felt for the cause of Indian national¬ 
ism. A revolutionary movement, dating from the last war, fed by resent¬ 
ment against the British and influenced by Chinese nationalist activities, 
flourished in Shanghai. The roots of this movement lay not in present- 
day Indian nationalism wtih its creed of passive resistance and civil- 
disobedience, but in the political terrorism of earlier years. Recently, 
however, the growing influence of the Indian National Congress has 
modified the political attitudes and objectives of this group. 

Before the last war, in both Hongkong and Shanghai there were 
Chadr (revolution) societies, affiliated with similar organizations on the 
west coast of the United States and elsewhere, which conspired for the 
overthrow of the British government in India. 

The Kuomintang nationalist movement in China proved to be not 
only an inspiration to the Indian groups in Hongkong and Shanghai, 
but also a source of material assistance. In 1927 the Eastern Oppressed 
People’s Association (EOPA) was organized in Hankow by a number of 
Kuomintang Chinese, Koreans, Filipinos, Japanese, and Indians. Its 
headquarters were later moved to Nanking where it functioned under the 
protection of the Kuomintang party, and its Indian section was reported¬ 
ly maintained by donations from Chinese friends and members of the 
Kuomintang, because the Indians were too poor to contribute more than 
small sums. Another group, the Indian Youth League of China, had an 
agreement with the Kuomintang and Bureau of Public Safety, which 
enabled it to hold meetings and carry on political activity. In 1930 this 
group issued several manifestoes condemning British rule and calling 
upon all Indians to fight for a free Asia. 

When the Japanese took over Shanghai and Hongkong they organ¬ 
ized Indian Independence Leagues in both places. Many of the members 
in Hongkong were British Indian troops who were put under pressure 
either to enroll or be treated as regular prisoners of war. Some of these 
were trained by the Japanese to enter India as spies. As politically- 
trained Indians in China have long been sympathetic to the Kuomintang 
it is not surprising that little enthusiasm for the Japanese-sponsored 
Leagues has been reported. 

Japan 

Japan has a smaller Indian population than any other country in 
East Asia. Nevertheless the presence in Japan of a small group of ardent 
Indian revolutionaries and refugee patriots, and the fact that they have 
received support from the Japanese, made Japan one of the most im¬ 
portant centers of Indian nationalist activities in East Asia before the 
war. Certain Japanese groups pursued the policy of actively encouraging 
revolutionary tendencies in Asiatic countries, especially those under 
European domination. The late Mitsuru Toyama, the original power 
behind Japanese secret patriotic societies and imperialist expansion in 
general, extended his patronage and protection. Several associations have 


5 








> 

* 


been devoted to the cause of Indian independence and the degree of 
organization for this purpose has surpassed anything achieved in other 
countries of East Asia. 

The most prominent Indian in Japan today is Rash Behari Bose. He 
believes strongly that freedom for India can be obtained only with Japa¬ 
nese aid. While still a young man he became involved in the Indian revo¬ 
lutionary movement, and was probably one of those responsible for the 
attack on the Viceroy of India in 1912. From 1912-15 he directed terrorist 
activities in the Punjab, but when a number of the ringleaders were ar¬ 
rested, Bose fled to Japan. The Japanese Government ordered him to 
be deported, but he was protected by Mitsuru Toyama, and to avoid 
further trouble took out Japanese citizenship papers. 

In 1931 Bose organized the first Indian Independence League, which 
announced as its object “the attainment of Independence for India by 
all possible means.” Until the rise to power of Subhas Chandra Bose, in 
Burma, the elder Bose was the recognized leader of the network of Indian 
Independence Leagues throughout East Asia. In the last year Subhas 
Chandra Bose had taken over complete control of the Indian Independ¬ 
ence League organizations and Rash Behari Bose has apparently retired. 

A rival organization to Bose’s Independence League, the Indian 
National Congress Committee of Japan, was organized in 1928, with A. M. 
Sahay as its leader. For some years it has published the Voice of India, 
in which Congress activities in India have been well covered, but the 
committee apparently has had no official connection with the Indian 
National Congress. Anand Mohan Sahay, the leader, is one of the few 
Indians in Japan who, while still in India, were ever closely connected 
with the Indian National Congress. In 1923 he settled in Japan to “work 
for the promotion of Indo-Japanese friendship and dissemination of cor¬ 
rect information regarding India in Japan.” The Japanese Who’s Who 
for 1937 records him as an educator and writer on India, Japan, Asia, 
and international problems. He is said to be completely unscrupulous 
and insincere in political matters, and to be continually at odds with 
Bose. 



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